INTRODUCTION: While a particular text may be officially recommended text for this course from time to time, any good anatomy text organized systemically (not regionally) will suffice.  It is assumed that each student has access to some equivalent text (see instructor if you are not sure), and the supplementary materials included here have been chosen with this in mind.  This handout includes many of the illustrations that will be used during lecture as well as an abbreviated outline of the topics covered and most of the vocabulary words.  The intent is that this will enable the student to spend more time listening and thinking, since much of the drawing and spelling will have been done.  Therefore, it is recommended that this handout be brought to lecture and be used as a reference and guide while taking notes.  However, it is a supplement, not a substitute for lecture notes.

The course requirements will be described in lecture, and exams will be based primarily on material covered in lecture, although some reading assignments will be included as well. As you consult your syllabus or handouts, do not consider chapter references to be exhaustive but rather use them as a guide to the first place to look for information. You might want to use other source material in the library for instance. There are many excellent Anatomy texts and atlases. Do not limit yourselves to any one source.

what is anatomy?

TERMINOLOGY: Anatomy, by its nature, involves a large vocabulary as we attempt to have a specific, precise name for each identifiable structure or component of a structure. We also must have precise vocabulary for describing the relative positions, shapes, and in some cases movements and functions of these structures. In order to increase the precision of these descriptions, we have developed a specialized vocabulary. In many cases the etymology of a word will help decipher its meaning (e.g. in "muscular dystrophy" dystrophy comes from "dys" - faulty + "trophe" - nourishment; "myasthenia gravis": "mys" - muscle + "astheneia" - weakness + "gravis" - heavy). Often your text elaborates these explanations; other good sources are medical dictionaries and other anatomy textbooks. You are responsible for the terminology used this semester but the etymology (the explanations) are for your benefit only.

Throughout the semester, the handouts will include much of the required vocabulary, but the handouts are not intended to be exhaustive. Any material covered in lecture or cited in your textbook is to be considered "required".

You are responsible for proper grammar e.g. proper singular and plural forms, distinguishing nouns from adjectives, spelling, etc.

BODY ORGANIZATION:

A. DIRECTIONS and RELATIVE POSITIONS

anatomical position
dorsal - ventral (palmar, plantar)
anterior - posterior
superior - inferior
proximal - distal
superficial - deep
medial - lateral (median, paramedian sagittal planes)
sagittal - coronal (vertical) - transverse (horizontal)
internal - external
parietal - visceral
ipsilateral - contralateral
supine - prone
extension - flexion
abduction - adduction - opposition
medial rotation - lateral rotation (supination - pronation)
circumduction
inversion - eversion
protraction - retraction

B. REGIONS: body cavities; axial - appendicular; membranes;

dermatomes

C. SYSTEMIC ORGANIZATION: cell - tissue - organ - system

D. OVERVIEW

fascia(e)
membranes: serous
mucous
synovial
cutaneous
nervous system
central - peripheral
somatic - autonomic
sympathetic - parasympathetic
endocrine system
exocrine
skeletal system
bone
cartilage
muscle
skeletal
cardiac
smooth
joints
fibrous - cartilaginous - synovial
ligaments - tendons - bursae
circulatory system - cardiovascular system
blood vessels
heart
lymphatics
respiratory system
digestive system - alimentary canal - gastrointestinal tract
urogenital systems
urinary tract
reproductive systems: _ -- _

gonad

gamete

MICROANATOMY

PLASMA MEMBRANE - PLASMALEMMA

phospholipid bilayer -- cholesterol

integral membrane proteins; peripheral proteins

fluid mosaic model

receptor, signal, anchor, enzyme, channel

- boundary - encloses & protects contents; separates in & out!! *life!*

- cell shape, locomotion; endocytosis & exocytosis; cell division, etc

- receptor sites

- enzyme anchorage (inside & outside)

- selective permeability

diffusion; osmosis -- concentration gradient

carrier-mediated diffusion - "facilitated"

active transport

endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis) & exocytosis

CYTOPLASM = CYTOSOL

NUCLEUS

nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, nucleolus, chromatin

MITOCHONDRION/__IA

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

-- ROUGH

-- SMOOTH

GOLGI COMPLEX (APPARATUS)

LYSOSOMES

RIBOSOME

CYTOSKELETON

microfilament = actin

intermediate filament

microtubule = tubulin

CENTRIOLE (BASAL BODY) -- cilia; flagella

other inclusions such as glycogen, lipid, melanin, specialized structures, etc.

EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX = ECM

CELL DIVISION = MITOSIS: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase + CYTOKINESIS

MEIOSIS: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase I & II

somatic cells -- germ cells = gametes = sperm & ovum/a = egg -- fertilization

TISSUES:

I. EPITHELIUM/__IA

apical, basal

junctions: tight junctions

intermediate junction -- terminal web

desmosome -- tonofilaments

hemidesmosomes

gap junction

basement membrane = basal lamina + reticular lamina

A. simple: one cell layer thick 1. squamous: flattened cells

B. stratified: >1 " " 2. cuboidal

3. columnar

C. pseudostratified (columnar only) 4. transitional(stratified only)

>> glandular epithelia - a class of its own <<

A1. simple squamous epithelium

A2. simple cuboidal epithelium

A3. simple columnar epithelium

B1. stratified squamous epithelium: keratinized -- non-keratinized

B2. stratified cuboidal epithelium

B3. stratified columnar epithelium

B4. transitional epithelium - umbrella cells

C. pseudostratified columnar epithelium: + ciliated

D. glandular epithelia : mucous (--> mucus-type secretion)

or serous (--> watery secretion)

ENDOCRINE = ductless \\ EXOCRINE = ducted

unicellular e.g. goblet cells

multicellular: tubular; acinar (flask-like); tubuloacinar \\ branched = compound or simple

holocrine

merocrine

apocrine

II. CONNECTIVE TISSUE [CT]

cells:

1. fibroblast

2. macrophage <-- monocyte

3. plasma cells <-- B-lymphocytes]

4. mast cells secrete heparin = anti-coagulant,

& probably serotonin & histamine = vasodilators

5. adipocytes

6. leucocytes =WBC

7. erythrocytes = RBC

ECM:

ground substance: hyaluronic acid; chondroitin sulfate; dermatan sulfate, keratan sulfate, etc

+ fibers: collagenous

elastic

reticular

Classes of CT:

I. embryonic: mesenchyme = fluid ground substance; mucous CT = gel or viscous ground substance

II. mature CT's:

a. FIBROUS CT

1. loose fibrous CT:

a. areolar CT

b. adipose -- "signet ring"

c. reticular

2. dense fibrous CT

a. regular

b. irregular

c. elastic (yellow CT)

b. CARTILAGE -- chondrocyte (chondroblast = immature)

lacuna(e)

perichondrium

apositional -- interstitial growth

1. hyaline: most common: amorphous matrix; smooth, shiny

2. fibrocartilage

3. elastic cartilage

c. BONE = OSSEOUS TISSUE -- osteoblasts -- osteocytes -- osteoclasts

lacuna(e)

canaliculi

hydroxy(l)apatite = mostly calcium phosphate + calcium phosphate

spongy bone -- compact bone

intermembranous or enchondrous growth

remodeling

Haversian system = osteon

Haversian = central canal

Volkmann's = perforating canal

d. BLOOD = RBC + WBC + PLASMA

e. MUSCLE: SMOOTH, STRIATED = CARDIAC + SKELETAL

f. NERVOUS & GLIAL TISSUES

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM (SKIN)

integument - largest organ = skin + structures derived from it

epidermis

hair & follicles

glands - sebaceous, sweat

nails - bed, root, fold

EPIDERMIS

keratinocyte

melanocyte

non-pigmented granular dendrocytes

= Langerhans' cells & Granstein cells

layers:

Stratum basale = germinativum

S. Spinosum

S. Granulosum

S. Lucidum - eleidin

S. Corneum

DERMIS

-- papillary region

** Meissner's corpuscles

-- reticular region

sebaceous glands

sweat = sudoriferous gland ducts

arrector pili

Pacinian corpuscles

sudoriferous glands:

(a) eccrine

(b) apocrine

(c) ceruminous

(d) mammary

HYPODERMIS (SUBCUTANEOUS)

color:

melanin (melanocytes)

carotene

hemoglobin (red blood cells)

surface patterns

flexion lines & creases

friction ridges (fingerprints)

lines of cleavage

BLOOD SUPPLY: cutaneous plexus & papillary plexus

FUNCTIONS:

-- support

-- protection

-- lever for movement

-- storage - fat (white marrow)

- minerals (esp calcium, phosphate)

-- hematopoeisis - red & white blood cell production

STRUCTURE: overall size,shape, markings

flat - e.g. skull, sternum, ribs, scapula

cuboidal = short - e.g. wrist & ankle (carpal, tarsal)

irregular - e.g. vertebrae, some bones of face

odd or variable (and variable number)

a. wormian = sutural: clusters between joints of some

cranial bones esp. occipital suture

b. sesamoid: in tendons where considerable pressure may

develop e.g. kneecap = patella (everyone) & sometimes

in tendons at wrist, ankle

long: e.g. arm, leg, finger, toe, hand, foot

-- diaphysis

-- epiphysis

-- metaphysis

-- epiphyseal plate

-- medullary cavity

osteoblasts

osteoclasts

enchondral growth

intramembranous growth

endosteum

periosteum

outer (fibrous) layer

inner (osteogenic) layer

-- functions: growth

nutrition

repair

attach to ligament, tendon

articular cartilage

AXIAL SYSTEM: 80 major bones: skull, vertebral column, ribs

SKULL: 22 bones: 8 cranial + 14 facial:

suture: coronal, sagittal, lambdoidal, squamosal

fontanel

-- anterior (frontal)

-- posterior (occipital)

-- anterolateral (sphenoid)

-- posterolateral (mastoid)

SPECIFIC BONES:

-- cranial --

frontal (1): forehead, anterior cranium, includes floor of orbit;

frontal sinuses

parietal (2): sides (wall) of cranium

temporal (2): squamous, zygomatic, petrous portions

occipital (1): posterior & base of cranium:

sphenoid (1): ("wedge") = "keystone" of cranial floor

ethmoid (1): anterior floor between orbits

cribiform plate with olfactory foramina

crista galli

superior & middle nasal conchae

-- facial --

nasal bone (2): bridge of nose

maxilla (2): articulate with all facial bones except mandible

zygomatic (2): cheek bones; with temporal bone --> arch

mandible (1): lower jaw; only moveable bone in skull

- ramus: each has a condylar process which articulates with

mandibular fossa & articular tubercle of temporal bone = TMJ

lacrimal (2): lacrimal fossa - tear ducts

palatine (2): post. 1/4 of hard palate

inferior nasal conchae (2): lat. wall of nasal cavity

vomer (2) "plowshare":inferior, post. part of nasal septum

hyoid (1): U-shaped; doesn't articulate with any other bone

-- vertebral column = spine <==> vertebrae --

intervertebral discs

ANNULUS FIBROSUS

NUCLEUS PULPOSUS

intervertebral foraminae

26 vertebrae:

7 cervical

12 thoracic

5 lumbar

5 sacral (fused --> sacrum)

4 coccygeal (fused --> 1 or 2 coccyx)

curvatures:

1^o curves: thoracic & sacral

2^o curves: cervical & lumbar

A typical vertebra has several characteristic features:

1. BODY

2. ARCH

pedicles

laminae

3. 7 processes of each arch:

2 transverse

1 spinous process

2 superior articular processes

2 inferior " "

DIFFERENCES:

A. cervical: small bodies, large arches; spinous processes often cleft

^* atlas (#1) supports head; has ant & post arches with lateral masses

^* axis (#2) has body & DENS

^* vertebra prominens (#7): large non-bifid spine

B. thoracic: larger, stronger, heavy body.

long spine points inferiorly

facets (or demi-facets) on sides for rib articulation

C. lumbar: largest & strongest

D. sacrum: triangular; articulates laterally with pelvis

E. coccyx

THORACIC BODY WALL:

sternum

- manubrium: articulates with ribs 1 & 2

- body: articulates directly or indirectly with ribs 2-10

- xiphoid process: no ribs, but some abdominal muscles attach

ribs: increase in length # 1--7; decrease in length # 8 -- 12

posterior articulation with vertebrae (at corresponding T-level)

"true ribs" - "vertebrosternal" articulations

"false ribs" - "vertebrochondral" articulations # 8-10

"floating ribs"

"typical" rib (#3-9):

head

neck

tubercle

body = shaft

costal groove

intercostal spaces

clinical notes:

slipped disc

curvatures: scoliosis

kyphosis

lordosis

spina bifida

fractures

APPENDICULAR SKELETON: GIRDLES & LIMBS:

PECTORAL GIRDLE (shoulder)

clavicle

scapula

UPPER EXTREMITY:

humerus

radius

ulna

carpals

metacarpals

phalanges (sing. phalynx)

PELVIC GIRDLE (hip):

os(sa) coxae = innominate bones = pelvic bones

ilium

ischium

pubis

symphysis pubis

acetabulum

sacrum

coccyx

LOWER EXTREMITY:

femur

patella

tibia

fibula

tarsals

metatarsals

phalanges (sing. phalynx)

LEVERS: FULCRUM, RESISTANCE, EFFORT

compare & contrast; know examples of each (in body)

CLASS I

CLASS II

CLASS III

ARTICULATIONS:

amount of movement:

-- synarthrotic

-- amphiarthrothic

-- diarthrotic

types of movement:

-- extension - flexion

-- abduction - adduction - opposition

-- medial rotation - lateral rotation (supination - pronation)

-- circumduction

-- inversion - eversion

-- protraction - retraction

-- elevation - depression

TYPES OF ARTICULATIONS:

A. FIBROUS

a. suture

b. syndesmosis

c. gomphosis

B. CARTILAGINOUS

a. synchondrosis

b. symphysis

C. SYNOVIAL

a. gliding = plane

b. hinge

c. pivot

d. ellipsoidal, condyloid

e. saddle

f. ball & socket

SPECIFIC JOINTS:

TEMPOROMANDIBULAR

HUMEROSCAPULAR = SHOULDER

ELBOW

WRIST

COXAL = HIP

acetabulum

TIBIOFEMORAL = KNEE

-- intermediate patellofemoral joint

-- lateral tibiofemoral joint

-- medial tibiofemoral joint

major structures associated with knee:

femur

tibia

patella

menisci: lateral meniscus

medial meniscus

cruciate ligaments - anterior & posterior

capsule

ANKLE

clinical notes:

bursitis

strain

sprain

dislocation

tendonitis

arthritis

rheumatoid arthritis

osteoarthritis

gouty arthritis

MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM -- MUSCLES

MUSCLE: comprises about 40-50% of body weight

excitability

contractility

extensibility

elasticity

Functions include: motion

maintenance of posture

heat production

Types: 1. smooth = not striated

2. cardiac = striated but not skeletal, not voluntary:

intercalated discs separate individual cells.

3. skeletal

-- striated

-- mostly voluntary

-- myofibers = multinucleate

Overall organization of muscles:

connective tissue = FASCIA: (a) superficial = subcutaneous

-- inner layer

-- between layers:

-- outer layer

(b) deep

-- endomysium

-- epimysium

-- fascicles

-- perimysium

-- TENDON

-- APONEUROSIS

-- tendon sheath

-- retinaculum

ORIGIN

INSERTION

GASTER

CONFIGURATION = arrangement of fasciculi = bundles of fibers w/in muscle and with respect to its tendon.

1. parallel = fasciculi extend length of muscle, terminating in

tendons at either end. ==> quadrate shape e.g. stylohyoid

-- fusiform = nearly parallel but tapers = "typical" e.g. biceps

2. convergent = broad origin --> narrow restricted insertion -->

triangular shape e.g. deltoid ("triangular shape")

3. pennate (pinnate) = short fasciculi + long tendon running

almost the whole length of the muscle; fascicles run

obliquely into tendon like plumes of a feather.

a. unipennate = all fascicles on one side e.g. extensor digitorum

b. bipennate = fascicles on 2 sides of tendon e.g. rectus femoris

c. multipennate = many tendons e.g. deltoid

4. circular = enclose an orifice e.g. orbicularis oculi, o. oris

-- agonist: prime mover. for example, to flex the elbow = biceps

-- synergist: act together to perform movement e.g. 2 heads of biceps

+ brachialis, etc. ... OR help agonist by reducing other

undesired forces e.g. deltoid & pectoralis major hold humerus &

shoulder in appropriate positions.

-- antagonist: acts in opposition to agonist e.g triceps extends elbow

NAMES: muscles' names usually have pertinent meanings for example:

1. direction of fibers:

a. rectus = parallel to midline of body:r.abdominis, femoris

b. transverse = perpendicular " " " :transversus abdominis

c. oblique = diagonal to " " ":external, internal oblique

2. location temporalis, tibialis

3. size e.g. maximus, minimus, longus, brevis gluteus maximus,

minimus; adductor longus; extensor digitorum longus, brevis

4. number of origins biceps brachii, triceps brachii, quadriceps

5. shape trapezius (trapezoid); deltoid (triangle); rhomboideus

6. origin - insertion sternocleidomastoid; stylohyoid

7. action e.g. flexor, extensor, adductor, pronator, levator

(lifter), etc. flexor, extensor digitorum

MUSCLE GROUPS:

FACIAL EXPRESSION

MASTICATION: 4 muscle pairs

1. temporalis

2. masseter

3. medial pterygoid

4. lateral pterygoid

OCULAR MUSCLES

TONGUE:

A. INTRINSIC

B. EXTRINSIC: _______-glossus e.g.

genio....

stylo...

hyo...

stylohyoid

NECK

A. POSTERIOR:

sternocleidomastoid

semispinalis capitis

longissimus capitis

B. SUPRAHYOID:

digastric

mylohyoid

stylohyoid

C. INFRAHYOID

sternohyoid

thyrohyoid

omohyoid (scapula)

sternothyroid

PECTORAL GIRDLE:

ANTERIOR:

serratus anterior

pectoralis minor

subclavius

POSTERIOR:

trapezius

levator scapulae

major & minor rhomboids

MOVE HUMERUS

A. "scapular muscles": 7/9 originate on scapula:

deltoid:

supraspinatus

infraspinatus

teres major

teres minor

subscapularis

coracobrachialis

B. "axial muscles": 2/9 originate elsewhere:

pectoralis major

latissimus dorsi

MOVE FOREARM:

biceps brachii

brachialis

brachioradialis

triceps brachii

WRIST, HAND, FINGERS

supinator

pronator teres

flexor carpi radialis

flexor carpi ulnaris

flexor digitorum superficialis (-> middle phalanges)

& " " profundus (-> distal phalanges)

extensor carpi radialis

extensor carpi ulnaris

extensor digitorum superficialis (-> middle phalanges)

& " " profundus (-> distal phalanges)

& intrinsic muscles of hand

RESPIRATION: diaphragm &

external intercostals - elevates & draws ribs together

internal intercostals - depresses & draws ribs together

ABDOMINAL WALL:

external oblique

internal oblique

transversus abdominus

rectus abdominus

VERTEBRAL COLUMN:

rectus abdominus

quadratus lumborum

erector spinae

THIGH:

A. anterior = extensors:

iliacus

psoas major

B. posterior = flexors:

gluteus maximus, medius, minimus

tensor fasciculata

6 internal rotators all at different angles

c. medial adductors

gracilis

pectineus

adductor longus, brevis, magnus

MOVE LOWER LEG:

anterior = extensor - sartorius

quadriceps femoris

rectus femoris

vastus lateralis, medialis, intermedius

posterior = flexor = hamstrings:

biceps femoris

semitendinosus

semimembranosus

LOWER LEG: move ANKLE, FOOT, TOES: crural muscle = shank;

anterior:

tibialis anterior

extensor digitorum longus

extensor hallucis longus

peroneus tertius

lateral:

peroneus longus

peroneus brevis

posterior:

gastrocnemius - Achilles tendon

soleus

plantaris

flexor hallucis longus

flexor digitorum longus

tibialis

intrinsic muscles of foot

NERVOUS SYSTEM

neurons - approx. 50% of brain cells

axon

dendrite

cell body (perikaryon)

-- many different types & shapes

unipolar

bipolar

multipolar

neuroglia - approx. 50% of brain cells

oligodendrocyte

astrocyte

microglia

ependyma

satellite cell

Schwann cell (PNS)

nerve fiber = axon + glial covering (e.g. myelin)

embryology: NEURAL TUBE -->

PROSENCEPHALON (forebrain) ... later subdivided into:

TELENCEPHALON (1st 2 (lateral) ventricles) --> cerebrum

(interventricular foramen of Monro)

DIENCEPHALON (3rd ventricle) --> thalamus, etc.

MESENCEPHALON (midbrain) (Aqueduct of Sylvius)

RHOMBENCEPHALON (hindbrain) (4th ventricle)... --> subdivided:

METENCEPHALON --> cerebellum

MYELENCEPHALON --> medulla oblongata

PERIPHERAL " " - paraxial & appendicular

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - axial

sensory - afferent - ascending

motor - efferent - descending

-- somatic

-- autonomic (visceral)

-- sympathetic

-- parasympathetic

interneurons

white matter

gray matter

myelin

CNS PNS

tract nerve (with fascicles)

nucleus ganglion

meninges epineurium (= meninx)

oligodendrocyte Schwann cell

many other glial types satellite cell

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM = BRAIN + SPINAL CORD

coverings:

BONE: cranium & vertebral column

CSF = cerebrospinal fluid

MENINGES (sing: meninx):

epidural space

dura mater

endosteal layer

dural sinuses

meningeal layer

septa:

falx cerebri

tentorium cerebelli

falx cerebelli

diaphragm sellae

subdural space (potential)

arachnoid

arachnoid villi, granulations

subarachnoid space (CSF)

pia mater

denticulate ligaments

(meningitis)

SPINAL CORD:

anterior median fissure

posterior median sulcus

white columns (funiculi (sing: funiculus):

posterior (dorsal)

lateral

anterior (ventral)

gray horns

posterior (dorsal)

lateral

anterior (ventral)

white commissure

anterior (ventral)

posterior (dorsal)

gray commissure

roots

dorsal (posterior)

ventral (anterior)

segments - 31 spinal nerve pairs

intersegmental fibers

enlargements - cervical, lumbar

conus medullaris

cauda equina

filum terminale (pia mater)

ascending tracts (selected)

fasciculus gracilis

fasciculus cuneatus

spinothalamic

-- lateral

-- anterior

spinocerebellar

-- posterior

-- anterior

descending tracts (selected)

corticospinal (pyramidal)

-- lateral

-- anterior

reticulospinal

-- lateral

-- anterior

-- medial

rubrospinal

spinal nerves

31 spinal nerve pairs

8 cervical

12 thoracic

5 lumbar

5 sacral

1 coccygeal

root:

dorsal

ventral

ramus

gray

sympathetic trunk

white

anterior

posterior

branches

REFLEX LOOP

BRAIN:

CEREBRUM

hemispheres (right & left)

lateral ventricles

choroid plexus

interventricular foramina (of Monro)

longitudinal fissure

corpus callosum

commissures: anterior & posterior

cortex

convolutions:

gyrus/gyri

sulcus/sulci

lobes:

frontal

precentral gyrus (motor)

Broca's area (motor speech)

temporal

auditory area

parietal

postcentral gyrus (sensory)

occipital

visual area

insula

central sulcus

lateral cerebral sulcus

parieto-occipital sulcus

transverse fissure

association fibers

commissural fibers

projection fibers

-- deep structures - functional areas:

basal ganglia

limbic system

sensory areas

gnostic areas

motor areas

association areas

cranial nerve I

DIENCEPHALON

interventricular foramina (of Monro)

3rd ventricle

-- choroid plexus

-- thalamus:

medial geniculate nucleus

lateral " "

ventral posterior "

" lateral "

" anterior "

-- hypothalamus:

neurohypophysis = anterior pituitary gland

other nuclei

-- optic chiasm

cranial nerve II

MESENCEPHALON

aqueduct of Sylvius

corpora quadrigemina:

superior colliculus

inferior "

medial lemniscus

cranial nerves III, IV

METENCEPHALON

4th ventricle

MYELENCEPHALON - MEDULLA OBLONGATA

-- roof: posterior choroid plexus

-- floor: pons

middle cerebellar peduncles

cranial nerves V - VII

-- lateral walls:

pyramids = lateral corticospinal tract

- decussate just superior to spinal cord

nucleus gracilis

" cuneatus

reticular formation

cranial nerves VIII - XII

-- anterior part of dorsolateral walls grow upward & fuse -->

cerebellum

cortex

folia

arbor vitae

cerebellar nuclei

cerebellar peduncles:

inferior --> medulla

middle --> pons

superior --> mesencephalon

CRANIAL NERVES

I. OLFACTORY

II. OPTIC

III. OCULOMOTOR

IV. TROCHLEAR

V. TRIGEMINAL

a. OPHTHALMIC

b. MAXILLARY

c. MANDIBULAR

VI. ABDUCENS

VII. FACIAL

VIII. VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR

IX. GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL

X. VAGUS

XI. ACCESSORY

XII. HYPOGLOSSAL

SPECIAL SENSES

1. olfactory: smell

cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone

olfactory nerve (I)

" bulb

" tract

2. gustatory: taste

Taste buds

PAPILLAE:

circumvallate

fungiform

filiform

tongue innervation:

VII (facial) -- anterior 2/3

IX (glossopharyngeal) -- posterior 1/3

X (vagus) -- epiglottis

(3. pain)

4. vision: OPTIC SYSTEM: eye + accessory structures

eyebrows

eyelids (palpebrae)

-- skin (thinnest in body) + muscle, CT, conjunctiva fused

levator palpebrae superioris

canthus: lateral & medial

lacrimal caruncle

orbicularis oculi muscle (VII)

tarsal plate

chalazion

eyelashes

sty

lacrimal apparatus = gland + sac + duct

lacrimal sac -> nasolacrimal duct --> nasal cavity

conjunctiva

EYEBALL

extrinsic muscles (innervation)

superior rectus (III)

inferior " "

medial " "

inferior oblique "

superior " (IV)

lateral rectus :(VI)

strabismus

fibrous tunic:

cornea

sclera

vascular tunic

choroid

ciliary body

ciliary muscle

-- oculomotor (III) + parasympathetic innervation

iris

lens

retina = inner tunic

rods

cones

fovea centralis

optic disc

inside eyeball

vitreous humor in posterior cavity

aqueous humor = clear fluid in anterior cavity

-- anterior chamber

-- posterior "

-- secreted by lining epithelium of ciliary body

-- canal of Schlemm

-- GLAUCOMA

vitreous body = transparent gel in posterior cavity

-- vitreous membrane

-- hyaloid canal (fetal: hyaloid artery)

5. auditory & vestibular (hearing & balance): EAR

external (outer) ear

pinna = auricle

external auditory meatus (canal)

-- isthmus

tympanic membrane

middle ear = tympanic cavity

-- posterior wall

tympanic antrum

-- anterior wall

Eustachian (auditory) tube (meatus)

-- medial wall

-- oval window

-- round window

auditory ossicles: malleus (hammer)

incus (anvil)

stapes (stirrup): fits into and covers oval window

secondary tympanic membrane covers round window

ligaments & muscles between ossicles & surrounding structs:

tensor tympani: malleus - cartilage of auditory tube

stapedius: stapes - posterior wall (pyramid)

inner ear:

labyrinth

bony

membranous (fits inside bony) = series of sacs & tubes

perilymph: fluid between bony & membranous structures

endolymph: fluid inside membranous structures

BONY LABYRINTH

vestibule

-- membrane lining = utricle

+ saccule

semi-circular canals

-- lining = semi-circular ducts = membranous labyrinth

+ ampullae at one end of each duct

cochlea "snail"

-- 3 channels

scala tympani

scala vestibuli

basilar membrane

organ of Corti = spiral organ

tectorial membrane

innervation: cranial nerve VIII

PNS

spinal nerves

31 spinal nerve pairs

Names:

C1 is between occipital bone & atlas.

C2-C7: leave ABOVE bone for which it is named

C8 and all the rest leave BELOW namesake vertebrae

8 cervical

12 thoracic

5 lumbar

5 sacral

1 coccygeal

root:

dorsal (posterior)

ganglion

ventral (anterior)

trunk

ramus (rami)

sympathetic trunk

communicantes:

white: myelinated preganglionic fibers

gray: unmyelinated postganglionic fibers

dorsal: muscles, joints & skin of back, vertebral column

ventral " " " of lateral & ventral body

branches ---> everywhere (as appropriate)

cervical and lumbar enlargements

plexus (plexi)

cervical plexus: C3-5

brachial plexus:

axillary nerve

radial "

ulnar (funny bone nerve)

musculocutaneous "

note: see also dermatomes

lumbar:

femoral nerve

obturator "

sacral:

sciatic nerve

-- tibial

-- common peroneal

"lumbosacral plexus"

REFLEX LOOP

AUTONOMIC NS:

preganglionic

postganglionic

SYMPATHETIC (thoracolumbar): T1 - L2

"fight or flight"

ADRENERGIC = norepinephrine

paravertebral ganglia

splanchnic nerves:

-- greater splanchnic nerve

celiac = solar ganglion

-- lesser splanchnic nerve

superior mesenteric ganglion

-- lumbar splanchnic nerve

inferior mesenteric ganglion

PARASYMPATHETIC (craniosacral):

CHOLINERGIC = acetylcholine (ACh)

cranial nerves: III, VII, IX, X

+ S2-4 = pelvic splanchnic nerves

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Glands which lack ducts

--> HORMONES - ("set in motion"):

-- STEROIDS

-- PEPTIDES

-- AMINO ACID DERIVATIVES

-- GLYCOPROTEINS

-- ETC.

--> targets via CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

ORGANS of the ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:

A. organs which are exclusively endocrine glands:

PINEAL

PITUITARY = HYPOPHYSIS - "master gland"

A. ADENOHYPOPHYSIS (develops from Rathke's pocket)

PARS DISTALIS

PARS TUBERALIS

PARS INTERMEDIA

B. NEUROHYPOPHYSIS (posteriorly) = PARS NERVOSA

INFUNDIBULUM

HYPOTHALAMUS

-- SELLA TURCICA of the SPHENOID BONE

-- CIRCLE OF WILLIS

THYROID

PARATHYROID

ADRENAL CORTEX

ADRENAL MEDULLA

B. organs which have both endocrine and other functions:

PANCREAS

SKIN

THYMUS

LIVER

KIDNEY

BRAIN

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

HEART - in: thoracic cavity

mediastinum

pericardial cavity - pericardial fluid

parietal pericardium = pericardial sac

fibrous layer (outer)

serous layer (inner) ---

- visceral pericardium = epicardium

- myocardium

- endocardium

CHAMBERS:

ATRIUM (ATRIA) - right & left

auricle

musculi pectinati

interatrial septum

fossa ovalis (foramen ovale)

VENTRICLE(S) - right & left

interventricular septum

trabeculae carneae

VALVES:

chordae tendinae

papillary muscles

cusp(s)

atrioventricular:

tricuspid

mitral

to great vessels:

pulmonary semilunar

aortic semilunar

EXTERNAL STRUCTURES:

anterior interventricular sulcus

posterior interventricular sulcus

coronary sulcus = atrioventricular sulcus

heart sounds:

"lubb" = atrioventricular valves closing - ventricular systole

"dup" = semilunar valves closing - ventricular diastole

valvular auscultatory areas:

aortic area - right 2nd intercostal space near sternum

pulmonic area - left " " " (directly opposite)

tricuspid area - 5th intercostal space

bicuspid (mitral) area - " " " but further out

CIRCULATORY ROUTES

-> ARTERY^* --> CAPILLARY NETWORK --> VEIN^* --> ATRIUM --> VENTRICLE ->

(PORTAL: \--> ARTERIOLE --> CAPILLARY NETWORK --> VEIN --> ...)

1. CORONARY:

right coronary artery -->

posterior interventricular artery

interior interventricular sulcus

marginal artery

left coronary artery -->

anterior interventricular artery

in " " sulcus

circumflex artery

great cardiac vein

middle cardiac vein

coronary sinus

2. PULMONARY:

pulmonary trunk --> pulmonary arteries

pulmonary veins

3. SYSTEMIC:

ARTERIAL

ascending aorta

coronary arteries: right & left

AORTIC ARCH

brachiocephalic a.

right common carotid a.

right subclavian a.

left common carotid a.

left subclavian a.

external carotids (r & l)

internal carotids (r & l)

vertebral (r & l)

axillary (r & l)

brachial (r & l)

radial (r & l)

ulnar (r & l)

palmar arch (r & l)

digitals (each digit)

descending aorta: thoracic & abdominal

intercostals (at each segment) (r & l)

celiac trunk

common hepatic

left gastric

splenic

superior mesenteric

renal (r & l)

suprarenal (r & l)

gonadal (r & l)

inferior mesenteric

lumbar (r & l)

common iliac (r & l)

external iliac (r & l)

internal iliac (r & l)

femoral (r & l)

deep femoral (r & l)

popliteal (r & l)

anterior tibial (r & l)

posterior tibial (r & l)

VENOUS

superior vena cava

external jugular (r & l)

internal " (r & l)

vertebral (r & l)

cephalic (r & l)

brachiocephalic (r & l)

subclavian (r & l)

axillary (r & l)

brachial (r & l)

radial (r & l)

ulnar (r & l)

basilic (r & l)

median cubital (r & l)

azygos

hemiazygos

inferior vena cava

renal (r & l)

suprarenal (r & l)

gonadal (r & l)

lumbar (r & l)

common iliac (r & l)

external iliac (r & l)

internal iliac (r & l)

femoral (r & l)

deep femoral (r & l)

great saphenous (r & l)

popliteal (r & l)

anterior tibial (r & l)

posterior tibial (r & l)

4. HEPATIC PORTAL:

hepatic artery (r & l)

hepatic portal vein (note its supply!):

<-- splenic

gastric

superior mesenteric

inferior mesenteric

-- liver --

hepatic vein

5. CEREBRAL: circle of Willis

6. FETAL

placenta

umbilical arteries (2) - from internal iliacs

umbilical vein (1) - to hepatic portal vein

** ductus venosus = shunt to inf. vena cava

--> ligamentum venosus **

** foramen ovale between atria

--> fossa ovale **

** ductus arteriosus from pulmonary trunk to aorta

--> ligamentum arteriosus **

endocarditis

angina pectoris

myocardial infarction

heart murmurs: valvular insufficiency

aneurysm

atherosclerosis

arteriosclerosis

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Functions:

return interstitial fluid & protein to circulation

edema

lipid absorption

protection - immune system

Component structures:

lymph

lymph capillaries

lacteals

lymph ducts

thoracic duct

right lymphatic duct

lymph nodules

-- Peyer's patches

-- tonsils

lymph nodes

-- popliteal

-- inguinal

-- lumbar

-- cubital

-- axillary

-- cervical

capsule

trabeculae

afferent lymphatic vessels

efferent " "

cortical sinuses in cortical tissue

hilus

germinal centers

lymphoid organs:

spleen

thymus

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

- ventilation - external respiration - internal respiration -

conducting division

NOSE:

nostril = external naris (nares)

internal nasal cavity = vestibule

-- nasal hairs = vibrissae

paranasal sinus (4)

nasolacrimal duct (2)

bones: ethmoid

vomer (--> cartilage)

maxilla

inferior conchae

palatine bones

hard palate = process of maxilla

nasal septum = perpendicular plate of ethmoid

PHARYNX:

NASOPHARYNX

Eustachian = auditory tube (2)

uvula

adenoid = pharyngeal tonsil

OROPHARYNX

palatine tonsil

lingual tonsil

LARYNGOPHARYNX - LARYNX

9 cartilages:

3 single: thyroid cartilage

epiglottis

-- glottis

cricoid cartilage

3 paired: arytenoid

cuneiform

corniculate

laryngeal muscles:

extrinsic

intrinsic

vocal folds = "true vocal cords"

ventricular folds = "false vocal cords"

TRACHEA

cartilage "C-rings" (16-20)

BRONCHI (bronchus = sing.)

primary (r & l)

secondary = lobular

tertiary = segmental

bronchioles

respiratory bronchioles

alveoli

respiratory division

LUNGS

pleural cavity

pleura = pleural membrane

parietal

visceral

hilum

apex = cupola

mediastinal surface

costal surface

base

right lung: 2 fissures / 3 lobes

superior lobe

middle lobe

inferior lobe

left lung: 1 fissure / 2 lobes

superior lobe

inferior lobe

cardiac notch

innervation:

respiratory center in brainstem:

-- medullary rhythmicity area in medulla

-- apneustic area in pons

-- pneumotaxic area in pons

inspiration:

diaphragm

external intercostals

-- phrenic nerve

-- intercostal nerves

-- accessory, cervical, thoracic nerves

expiration: (forced):

internal intercostals (<-- intercostal nerves)

abdominal muscles (<-- lower spinal nerves)

cleft palate

tracheotomy

tracheostomy

-- recurrent laryngeal nerve

-- carotid artery

pleurisy

hyaline membrane disease

cystic fibrosis

epistaxis

pneumothorax

pneumonia

apnea - dyspnea - eupnea - hyperpnea - tachypnea

tuberculosis

asthma

emphysema

cancers

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

MOUTH:

SALIVARY GLANDS -

parotid

submandibular

sublingual

minor

TEETH

DECIDUOUS (20)

PERMANENT:

-- incisors

-- canines

-- premolars = bicuspids

-- molars

crown

neck

gingiva

root

socket = alveolus (alveoli)

periodontal membrane (periosteum)

cementum

dentin

enamel

pulp

pulp cavity

root canal

apical foramen

PALATE

hard (bony)

soft

TONGUE

intrinsic muscles

extrinsic muscles

lingual frenulum

taste buds

UVULA

TONSILS

lingual

palatine

pharyngeal

OROPHARYNX

EPIGLOTTIS

ESOPHAGUS:

-- ESOPHAGEAL HIATUS --

-- GASTROESOPHAGEAL (lower esophageal) SPHINCTER --

ABDOMINAL CAVITY:

parietal peritoneum

visceral peritoneum

"retroperitoneal"

mesentery

dorsal mesentery

mesocolon

falciform ligament

lesser omentum

greater omentum

STOMACH:

-- CARDIAC SPHINCTER

CARDIA

FUNDUS

BODY

PYLORUS

-- PYLORIC SPHINCTER --

anterior/posterior border

greater/lesser curvature

SMALL INTESTINE:

PLICAE CIRCULARIS

VILLI

LACTEALS

DUODENUM -- partially retroperitoneal

-- PYLORIC SPHINCTER --

DUODENAL PAPILLA

HEPATOPANCREATIC AMPULLA (of VATER)

SPHINCTER of ODDI

COMMON BILE DUCT

PANCREATIC DUCT

-- DUODENOJEJUNAL FLEXURE

JEJUNUM

ILEUM

-- ILEOCECAL VALVE --

COLON: taeniae coli

haustra

epiploic appendages

CECUM

vermiform appendix

ASCENDING

-- right colic flexure (hepatic flexure)

TRANSVERSE

-- left colic flexure (splenic flexure)

DESCENDING

SIGMOID

RECTUM

ANAL SPHINCTER:

INTERNAL

EXTERNAL

ACCESSORY ORGANS:

SALIVARY GLANDS

parotid

submandibular

sublingual

minor

PANCREAS

head

neck

tail

pancreatic duct(s)

ampulla of Vater

sphincter of Oddi

LIVER

coronary ligament

right lobe

right lobe proper

quadrate lobe

caudate lobe

left lobe

FALCIFORM LIGAMENT

LIGAMENTUM TERES

lobules

hepatic artery

hepatic portal vein

hepatic vein

HEPATIC DUCTS

COMMON BILE DUCT

GALL BLADDER

CYSTIC DUCT

COMMON BILE DUCT

Ampulla of Vater

INNERVATION

VASCULATURE

UROGENITAL SYSTEMS

URINARY SYSTEM

urogenital ridge

pronephros

mesonephros

pronephric duct --> mesonephric duct

metanephros

-- metanephrogenic mass

-- ureteric bud

urinary sinus

urachus

KIDNEY:

retroperitoneal

CAPSULE

renal fascia

renal fat

RENAL SINUS

HILUM

(ureter)

renal pelvis

major calyx (calyces)

minor calyx

MEDULLA - PYRAMIDS

collecting ducts

renal papilla(e)

CORTEX - COLUMNS

nephrons

VASCULATURE:

descending abdominal aorta

renal artery (right & left)

interlobar arteries

arciform = arcuate a.

interlobar a.

afferent arterioles

glomerulus (glomeruli)

efferent arterioles

peritubular capillaries

venules

interlobular veins

arcuate v.

interlobar v.

renal v. (r & l)

inferior vena cava

-- NO SIGNIFICANT COLLATERAL SUPPLY - NO OVERLAP BETWEEN LOBES --

URETER

URINARY BLADDER

trigone

detrusor muscle

internal sphincter

URETHRA

external sphincter

urethral glands

-- female --

-- male --

prostatic

membranous

urogenital diaphragm

penile

MICTURITION

bladder capacity

micturition reflex

detrusor muscle

internal sphincter

external sphincter

INNERVATION

VASCULATURE

ETC.

diuretics

dysuria

hematuria

bacteriuria

pyuria

oliguria

polyuria

enuresis = incontinence

cystoscopy

urinalysis

urethritis

cystitis

nephritis

calculi = kidney stones

hemodialysis

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM - MALE

PRIMARY SEX ORGANS

TESTIS (TESTES) = GONAD -- in SCROTUM

descent

GUBERNACULUM

inguinal canal

perineum

cremaster muscle

dartos

median septum

perineal raphe

tunica vaginalis

tunica albuginea

mediastinum testis

septa

lobules

seminiferous tubules

rete testis

SECONDARY SEX ORGANS

EPIDIDYMIS

head

body

tail

VAS (DUCTUS) DEFERENS

spermatic cord

inguinal canal

pelvic brim

ampulla

PROSTATE GLAND

SEMINAL VESICLE

semen

seminal vesicle duct

EJACULATORY DUCT

BULBOURETHRAL (COWPER'S) GLAND

URETHRA

urethral glands

EXTERNAL GENITALIA:

PENIS

urogenital triangle

perineum

bulbospongiosus muscle

ischiocavernosus muscle

ROOT

bulb

crus (crura)

SHAFT

deep fascia

tunica albuginea

corpora cavernosa

median septum

deep dorsal artery

corpus spongiosum

dorsal vein

deep dorsal vein

GLANS PENIS

external urethral meatus

corona glandis

frenulum

prepuce = foreskin

circumcision

erection:

erectile tissue

venous sinusoids

innervation

vasodilation

vasoconstriction

orgasm

ejaculation

emission

ETC.

cryptorchidism

vasectomy

hydrocele

prostatic hyperplasia

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM - FEMALE

PRIMARY SEX ORGANS

OVARY = GONAD

retroperitoneal

ovarian fossa

descent

germinal epithelium

tunica albuginea

stroma:

cortex - follicles

medulla

hilum

peritoneum

broad ligament

mesovarium

suspensory ligament

ovarian ligament

FALLOPIAN (UTERINE) TUBE - (OVIDUCT)

broad ligament

infundibulum

fimbria(e)

ampulla

UTERUS

broad ligament

septum

uterosacral ligament

cardinal (lateral cervical)ligament

round ligament

inguinal canal

fundus

body

uterine cavity

endometrium

myometrium

perimetrium - serosa

IMPLANTATION

CERVIX

cervical orifice

cervical canal

internal os

external os

VAGINA

fornix (fornices): anterior, lateral, posterior

orifice

hymen

MAMMARY GLANDS

breast

lobe

lobule

suspensory ligament (of Cooper)

alveoli

secondary tubules

lactiferous duct

ampulla

nipple

areola

areolar glands = sebaceous

EXTERNAL GENITALIA:

VESTIBULE

vulva = pudendum

mons pubis

labia majora

pudendal cleft

labia minora

clitoris

prepuce

glans

corpus spongiosum

corpora cavernosa

crura

vestibular glands

" bulbs

erection:

erectile tissue

venous sinusoids

innervation

vasodilation

vasoconstriction

orgasm

lubrication

ETC.

ectopic pregnancy: tubular, abdominal

amenorrhea

dysmenorrhea

prolapse of uterus

contraception

tubal ligation

ANATOMICAL CHANGES DURING LIFETIME:

EMBRYOGENESIS - PRENATAL - POSTNATAL - AGEING

OVUM = EGG

SPERM

FERTILIZATION

EXTRAEMBRYONIC STRUCTURES

trophoblast

implantation

placenta

amnion

amniocentesis

chorion

villous

chorionic villi sampling (CVS)

smooth

yolk sac

decidua

umbilicus

EMBRYO

zygote

inner cell mass

embryo

fetus

germ layers

ectoderm

general

neural

neural crest

mesoderm

endoderm

organ primordium

organogenesis

fetal circulatory system specializations

ductus venosus (ligamentum venosus)

ductus arteriosus (ligamentum arteriosus)

foramen ovale (fossa ovale)

umbilical artery

umbilical vein

pregnancy

parturition